Living in Gangbuk-gu
In Gangbuk-gu, unemployment is 2.3% (2025).
강북구 is a city in South Korea, with a population of 278,041 in June 2026. The annual mean temperature estimate was 13.2°C at the end of 2024. The annual precipitation estimate was 1,483.7 mm at the end of 2024. Annual PM2.5 was 16.6 µg/m³ at the end of 2024. For 강북구, the unemployment rate was 2.3% at the end of 2025.
Which South Korea-wide rules apply when you move to Gangbuk-gu?
National rules stay on the country page instead of being relabelled as city data.
Housing and cost
The housing-vacancy rate was 3.81% at the end of 2024.
In South Korea, jeonse is a deposit-only lease with no monthly rent. Where both values are available, the profile's monthly comparison estimates its cost as deposit × annual conversion rate ÷ 100 ÷ 12. Wolse is a separate lease with a monthly payment and its own deposit; that deposit is not included in the monthly figure.
| Metric | Value | Period | Source |
|---|---|---|---|
| Internet, 60 Mbps unlimited | 31.8 EUR/month | 30 Sept 2026 | KT 100 Mbps internet15Official · national market |
| Mobile plan, 10 GB | 28.91 EUR/month | 30 Sept 2026 | KT mobile data plan16Official · national market |
| Dwellings | 101,800 dwellings | 31 Dec 2024 | DT_1JU1501 2024 housing units by municipality7Official |
| Housing vacancy rate | 3.81 % | 31 Dec 2024 | DT_1JU1512 2024 vacant housing units by municipality8Official |
| Annual jeonse deposit-to-rent conversion rate | 5 % | 31 Jul 2026 | 전국주택가격동향조사 — 지역별 전월세 전환율_아파트 (A_2024_00156, statId S234820263)28Official |
| Median jeonse deposit (deposit-only lease) | 252,861 EUR | 31 Aug 2026 | 국토교통부 실거래가 공개시스템 조건별 자료제공 — 아파트 전월세 (전세 rows: 보증금(만원))27Official |
| Median wolse monthly payment (deposit also required) | 426.3 EUR/month | 31 Aug 2026 | 국토교통부 실거래가 공개시스템 조건별 자료제공 — 아파트 전월세 (월세 rows: 월세금(만원), deposit coexists)27Official |
Is Gangbuk-gu a good place to live?
There is no universal answer. The profile scores below show who the available published evidence may suit; they are a decision aid, not a personal recommendation.
Work and income
What is the unemployment rate in 강북구?
The unemployment rate is 2.3 % (2025). Source: 2025 H2 Local Area Labour Force Survey — municipal key employment indicators1
Gangbuk-gu 2.3%
Unemployment rate (%)
| Metric | Value | Period | Source |
|---|---|---|---|
| Public employment offices | 1 count | 15 Sept 2026 | Work24 — 고용복지+센터 institution finder26Official |
| Unemployment rate | 2.3 %country median 2.7% | 31 Dec 2025 | 2025 H2 Local Area Labour Force Survey — municipal key employment indicators1Official |
What does a salary buy in Gangbuk-gu?
Take-home pay after tax, minus rent and the everyday bills this city publishes. Each line names its source.
RentInternetMobileLeft over
Line-by-line breakdown and sources
| Each month | € |
|---|---|
| Take-home payOECD Taxing Wages 2025, single, no children. Includes central and local income tax and employee social contributions; euro amounts at the ECB average for 2026-08. | €1,660 |
| Jeonse monthly equivalentjeonse monthly equivalent; based on a €252,861 refundable deposit and 5.0% annual conversion rate · official · 국토교통부 실거래가 공개시스템 조건별 자료제공 · 2026-08-31 · official · 전국주택가격동향조사 · 2026-07-31 | − €1,054 |
| Internet€32 · official · KT 100 Mbps internet · 2026-09-30 | − €32 |
| Mobile plan€29 · official · KT mobile data plan · 2026-09-30 | − €29 |
| Other everyday billsnot published for this city: public transport pass, utilities | — |
| Left overbefore the bills this city does not publish | €546 |
Public employment offices in Gangbuk-gu
Work24 lists 1 public employment office in Gangbuk-gu (checked 2026-09-16). Use the official office finder for addresses and appointments; registration and job search are also available online through the national service below.
Work24 public employment service — Public employment service
The office count comes from the service's own directory. Individual addresses and opening hours are not listed here yet. Sources checked through 16 Sept 2026.
Family and education
| Metric | Value | Period | Source |
|---|---|---|---|
| Schools | 34 schools | 21 Jul 2026 | Schoolinfo official open-data callback response23Official |
Healthcare
| Metric | Value | Period | Source |
|---|---|---|---|
| Doctors per 1,000 residents | 2.8 per 1,000 | 31 Dec 2024 | KOSIS e-RegionIndex doctors per 100012Official |
| Hospital beds per 100,000 residents | 820 beds per 100,000 | 31 Dec 2024 | KOSIS e-RegionIndex hospital beds per 100k13Official |
| Hospitals | 16 count | 30 Jun 2026 | HIRA 전국 병의원 및 약국 현황 2026.6 — 시설정보10Official |
| Pharmacies | 167 count | 30 Jun 2026 | HIRA 전국 병의원 및 약국 현황 2026.6 — 약국정보서비스10Official |
| Physicians per 100,000 residents | 280 per 100,000 | 31 Dec 2024 | KOSIS e-RegionIndex doctors per 100012Official |
Yes — migrants can receive medical care in Gangbuk-gu under the national coverage rules.
Healthcare access follows the country-wide insurance rules; local capacity facts remain city data and are not used as proof of eligibility.
Open the official coverage guideSafety
How safe is 강북구?
Police recorded about 3,100 incidents per 100,000 (2024). This counts all offences, so it is not comparable with a violent-crime-only rate from another source. Source: KR-Police-regional-crime-202414
Language courses and integration
No exact city-level course record is currently published for Gangbuk-gu. These verified national programmes may still apply; use the official programme page to check local availability.
Early Adaptation Program — Newcomer Adaptation
Ministry of Justice / Korea Immigration Service
For newly arrived foreign residents, international students, workers, marriage migrants.
Social Integration Program (KIIP) — Integration course
Ministry of Justice / Korea Immigration Service
For foreign residents in Korea, people within three years of naturalization.
Climate and air quality
Is the air quality good in 강북구?
The annual PM2.5 mean is about 16.6 µg/m³ (2024) — above the WHO 2021 guideline of 5 µg/m³ but within the EU limit of 25 µg/m³.
Annual mean at the measuring site(s) serving the city; current-day readings differ.
- PM2.5 — annual mean: 16.59 µg/m³ · Air Pollution Level Confirmation Data — 2024 PM2.5 station observations2
Night-time low to daytime high
mm
hours
Within WHO 2021 guidelineAbove WHO, within EU limitAbove EU legal limitCity annual mean · µg/m³
City values from the published air-quality observations. WHO 2021 guidelines and EU limit values are published constants.
Gangbuk-gu 16.6
Annual PM2.5 (µg/m³)
| Metric | Value | Period | Source |
|---|---|---|---|
| PM2.5 — annual mean | 16.59 µg/m³country median 16.0 | 31 Dec 2024 | Air Pollution Level Confirmation Data — 2024 PM2.5 station observations2Official |
| Average daytime high by month | Jan 2.1 · Feb 5.1 · Mar 11 · Apr 17.9 · May 23.6 · Jun 27.6 · Jul 29 · Aug 30 · Sep 26.2 · Oct 20.2 · Nov 11.9 · Dec 4.2 °C | 1991–2020 | WMO Climatological Normals 1991-2020 — station Seoul_47108.csv25Official · nearest-station reading |
| Average night-time low by month | Jan -5.5 · Feb -3.2 · Mar 1.9 · Apr 8 · May 13.5 · Jun 18.7 · Jul 22.3 · Aug 22.9 · Sep 17.7 · Oct 10.6 · Nov 3.5 · Dec -3.4 °C | 1991–2020 | WMO Climatological Normals 1991-2020 — station Seoul_47108.csv25Official · nearest-station reading |
| Average temperature by month | Jan -2 · Feb 0.7 · Mar 6.1 · Apr 12.6 · May 18.3 · Jun 22.7 · Jul 25.3 · Aug 26.1 · Sep 21.7 · Oct 15 · Nov 7.5 · Dec 0.2 °C | 1991–2020 | WMO Climatological Normals 1991-2020 — station Seoul_47108.csv25Official · nearest-station reading |
| Average precipitation by month | Jan 16.8 · Feb 28.2 · Mar 36.9 · Apr 72.9 · May 103.6 · Jun 129.5 · Jul 414.4 · Aug 348.2 · Sep 141.5 · Oct 52.2 · Nov 51.1 · Dec 22.6 mm | 1991–2020 | WMO Climatological Normals 1991-2020 — station Seoul_47108.csv25Official · nearest-station reading |
| Average sunshine by month | Jan 169.6 · Feb 170.8 · Mar 198.2 · Apr 206.3 · May 223 · Jun 189.1 · Jul 123.6 · Aug 156.1 · Sep 179.7 · Oct 206.5 · Nov 157.3 · Dec 162.9 hours | 1991–2020 | WMO Climatological Normals 1991-2020 — station Seoul_47108.csv25Official · nearest-station reading |
| Annual mean temperature | 13.18 °C | 31 Dec 2024 | NASA POWER 2024 daily point climate observation for South Korea municipalities19Official source, approximated value · Supplemental context |
| Annual precipitation | 1,484 mm | 31 Dec 2024 | NASA POWER 2024 daily point climate observation for South Korea municipalities19Official source, approximated value · Supplemental context |
Population and city profile
The city covered 23.6 km² in 2020. Population density was 12,016.8 people per km² in 2024.
How many people live in 강북구?
The published population was 278,041 people in June 2026. Source: MOIS resident registration population by si/gun/gu, June 202617
By nationality
National passport97.5%
Calculated from the population and foreign-resident facts on this page.
| Metric | Value | Period | Source |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cars per 1,000 residents | 254.2 cars/1000 residents | 31 Dec 2024 | Registered motor vehicles by si, gun and gu22Official |
| City area | 23.6 km² | 2020 | Official KOSIS visual statistics, Korea City Statistics, regional area; joined to the archived MOIS/KOSIS si-gun-gu code and name.20Official |
| Foreign-resident share | 2.5 % | 31 Dec 2025 | Korea Immigration Service registered foreigners by si/gun/gu and nationality, 2025-12-3111Official |
| Foreign residents | 7,076 people | 31 Mar 2026 | Registered foreigners by local government, March 202621Official |
| Population density | 12,017 people/km² | 31 Dec 2024 | Exact si-gun-gu density derived from archived official MOIS/KOSIS resident population and exact official KOSIS area row.20Official |
| Female residents | 144,451 people | 30 Jun 2026 | MOIS resident-registration population, sex and household counts by administrative area, June 202618Official |
| Male residents | 133,590 people | 30 Jun 2026 | MOIS resident-registration population, sex and household counts by administrative area, June 202618Official |
| Population | 278,041 people | 30 Jun 2026 | MOIS resident registration population by si/gun/gu, June 202617Official |
International community in Gangbuk-gu
Named groups from exact city-grain official distributions. Citizenship, birthplace, language and ancestry answer different questions and stay separate.
Citizenship
Persons recorded in the official KOSIS registered-foreigner population table; this is not the total resident population and is not interchangeable with resident citizenship. · 2025
| Published group | People | Share |
|---|---|---|
| 계 | 6,972 | 100.0% |
| 베트남 | 1,715 | 24.6% |
| 중국 | 1,515 | 21.7% |
| 몽골 | 1,128 | 16.2% |
| 한국계중국인 | 715 | 10.3% |
| 미얀마 | 198 | 2.8% |
| 일본 | 194 | 2.8% |
| 우즈베키스탄 | 180 | 2.6% |
| 타이완(대만) | 144 | 2.1% |
| 필리핀 | 126 | 1.8% |
Show 86 more groups
| Published group | People | Share |
|---|---|---|
| 타이(태국) | 115 | 1.6% |
| 미국 | 111 | 1.6% |
| 네팔 | 105 | 1.5% |
| 러시아(연방) | 95 | 1.4% |
| 튀르키예 | 45 | 0.6% |
| 파키스탄 | 37 | 0.5% |
| 홍콩 | 34 | 0.5% |
| 카자흐스탄 | 33 | 0.5% |
| 인도네시아 | 32 | 0.5% |
| 캄보디아 | 29 | 0.4% |
| 프랑스 | 29 | 0.4% |
| 타지키스탄 | 28 | 0.4% |
| 영국 | 22 | 0.3% |
| 인도 | 21 | 0.3% |
| 키르기즈 | 20 | 0.3% |
| 말레이시아 | 20 | 0.3% |
| 독일 | 19 | 0.3% |
| 캐나다 | 18 | 0.3% |
| 남아프리카공화국 | 14 | 0.2% |
| 스페인 | 14 | 0.2% |
| 우크라이나 | 12 | 0.2% |
| 이란 | 11 | 0.2% |
| 싱가포르 | 9 | 0.1% |
| 아일랜드 | 9 | 0.1% |
| 모로코 | 9 | 0.1% |
| 사우디아라비아 | 8 | 0.1% |
| 이탈리아 | 8 | 0.1% |
| 라오스 | 8 | 0.1% |
| 벨라루스 | 8 | 0.1% |
| 방글라데시 | 7 | 0.1% |
| 오스트레일리아 | 7 | 0.1% |
| 브라질 | 7 | 0.1% |
| 나이지리아 | 6 | 0.1% |
| 뉴질랜드 | 5 | 0.1% |
| 멕시코 | 5 | 0.1% |
| 폴란드 | 5 | 0.1% |
| 스리랑카 | 4 | 0.1% |
| 스웨덴 | 4 | 0.1% |
| 콜롬비아 | 4 | 0.1% |
| 아제르바이잔 | 4 | 0.1% |
| 아르헨티나 | 4 | 0.1% |
| 기타 | 4 | 0.1% |
| 이집트 | 3 | 0.0% |
| 네덜란드 | 3 | 0.0% |
| 한국계러시아인 | 3 | 0.0% |
| 에티오피아 | 3 | 0.0% |
| 벨기에 | 3 | 0.0% |
| 오스트리아 | 3 | 0.0% |
| 포르투갈 | 3 | 0.0% |
| 가나 | 2 | 0.0% |
| 루마니아 | 2 | 0.0% |
| 스위스 | 2 | 0.0% |
| 탄자니아 | 2 | 0.0% |
| 불가리아 | 2 | 0.0% |
| 체코 | 2 | 0.0% |
| 헝가리 | 2 | 0.0% |
| 투르크메니스탄 | 2 | 0.0% |
| 리투아니아 | 2 | 0.0% |
| 기니 | 2 | 0.0% |
| 노르웨이 | 1 | 0.0% |
| 시리아 | 1 | 0.0% |
| 그리스 | 1 | 0.0% |
| 핀란드 | 1 | 0.0% |
| 에콰도르 | 1 | 0.0% |
| 콩고민주공화국 | 1 | 0.0% |
| 수단 | 1 | 0.0% |
| 르완다 | 1 | 0.0% |
| 알제리 | 1 | 0.0% |
| 이스라엘 | 1 | 0.0% |
| 코트디부아르 | 1 | 0.0% |
| 칠레 | 1 | 0.0% |
| 세네갈 | 1 | 0.0% |
| 아르메니아 | 1 | 0.0% |
| 마카오 | 1 | 0.0% |
| 파라과이 | 1 | 0.0% |
| 엘살바도르 | 1 | 0.0% |
| 코스타리카 | 1 | 0.0% |
| 라트비아 | 1 | 0.0% |
| 슬로베니아 | 1 | 0.0% |
| 쿠바 | 1 | 0.0% |
| 온두라스 | 1 | 0.0% |
| 부르키나파소 | 1 | 0.0% |
| 에스토니아 | 1 | 0.0% |
| 베냉 | 1 | 0.0% |
| 바레인 | 1 | 0.0% |
| 북마케도니아 | 1 | 0.0% |
Largest published groups; zero-count groups are omitted. Dimensions are source-native and are never merged. Official source24
Additional context
| Metric | Value | Period | Source |
|---|---|---|---|
| Households | 142,815 households | 30 Jun 2026 | MOIS resident-registration population, sex and household counts by administrative area, June 202618Official |
Alternatives for people set on Gangbuk-gu
Three places for the three reasons people leave a city on the shortlist: stay in the region, stay in the country, or keep the budget and change the country. A percentage appears only where both cities publish that metric from the same source, period and grain. Distances are straight lines — travel times are not collected yet.
Gyeongsan-si as a Gangbuk-gu alternative in the same country
Better on 4 of 6 metrics measured the same way, worse on 1.
- Foreign residents: 8.5% Gyeongsan-si vs 2.5% Gangbuk-gu+239%
- Empty flats: 9.0% Gyeongsan-si vs 3.8% Gangbuk-gu+138%
- Hospital beds, per 100k: 1,320.0 Gyeongsan-si vs 820.0 Gangbuk-gu+61%
- Recorded crime, per 100k: 3,240 Gyeongsan-si vs 3,100 Gangbuk-gu+5%
- Unemployment: 2.2% Gyeongsan-si vs 2.3% Gangbuk-gu−4%
- Residents: 263,406 Gyeongsan-si vs 278,041 Gangbuk-gu−5%
Alternative cities in South Korea
Other cities in South Korea to compare with Gangbuk-gu, nearest in population first.
How does Gangbuk-gu compare?
Pick a city. The answer appears here and the address bar keeps it, so the comparison can be shared; the page stays Gangbuk-gu's.
Is Gangbuk-gu part of Seoul?
Gangbuk-gu is administratively part of Seoul. It is about 9.5 km away by straight-line distance. Seoul city profile
Relationship type: Administrative Part Of. Source9
Which comparable places record less crime than Gangbuk-gu?
32 places have a lower recorded total crime rate than Gangbuk-gu in this strictly source-matched cohort.
Gangbuk-gu: 3,073.4 recorded crime occurrences/100k residents (2024).
Only the same source family, offence definition, period, grain and denominator method are compared. This is recorded crime, not a claim about personal safety. Official source5
Common questions
Answered from the published values on this page, each with its source and date.
How many people live in 강북구?
The published population was 278,041 people in June 2026. Source: MOIS resident registration population by si/gun/gu, June 2026.
Is the air quality good in 강북구?
The annual PM2.5 mean is about 16.6 µg/m³ (2024) — above the WHO 2021 guideline of 5 µg/m³ but within the EU limit of 25 µg/m³. Source: Air Pollution Level Confirmation Data — 2024 PM2.5 station observations.
How safe is 강북구?
Police recorded about 3,100 incidents per 100,000 (2024). This counts all offences, so it is not comparable with a violent-crime-only rate from another source. Source: KR-Police-regional-crime-2024.
What is the unemployment rate in 강북구?
The unemployment rate is 2.3 % (2025). Source: 2025 H2 Local Area Labour Force Survey — municipal key employment indicators.
How many foreign residents live in Gangbuk-gu?
7,076 residents hold a foreign nationality. Source: Registered foreigners by local government, March 2026.
Is Gangbuk-gu a good place to live?
Gangbuk-gu may suit different people for different reasons. The page's profile scores compare published cost, work, housing, safety, healthcare and other available factors; they are a decision aid, not a universal recommendation.
Is Gangbuk-gu part of Seoul?
Gangbuk-gu is administratively part of Seoul. It is about 9.5 km away by straight-line distance.
How many people are in the 계 citizenship group in Gangbuk-gu?
The official citizenship distribution records 6,972 people (100.0%) in the source-defined population for 2025. This is a citizenship measure, not a general estimate of ethnicity or migration status.
Which comparable places record less crime than Gangbuk-gu?
32 places have a lower recorded total crime rate than Gangbuk-gu in this strictly source-matched cohort. The comparison uses Korean National Police Agency regional crime occurrence CSV 2024 + 2024 Registered Census population, period 2024, and does not compare across incompatible police definitions.
Cite this page
Open a format to select or copy this ImmigrationDB compilation citation. The native disclosure and text fallback work without JavaScript.
APA citation
ImmigrationDB. (2026, October 16). Gangbuk-gu, South Korea: population, rent, cost of living [ImmigrationDB compilation; version 6d2051efb0f838b5e2395c794434a480]. ImmigrationDB. https://immigrationdb.com/cities/kr/gangbuggu/ Retrieved 2026-10-16. Compilation license: CC BY 4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/BibTeX citation
@misc{immigrationdb_immigrationdb_gangbuk-gu-south-korea-population-rent-cost-of-living_74525788250c,
author = {ImmigrationDB},
title = {Gangbuk-gu, South Korea: population, rent, cost of living},
publisher = {ImmigrationDB},
year = {2026},
date = {2026-10-16},
version = {6d2051efb0f838b5e2395c794434a480},
url = {https://immigrationdb.com/cities/kr/gangbuggu/},
note = {Retrieved 2026-10-16. ImmigrationDB compilation. Compilation license: CC BY 4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/},
}Markdown citation
[Gangbuk-gu, South Korea: population, rent, cost of living](https://immigrationdb.com/cities/kr/gangbuggu/) — ImmigrationDB; ImmigrationDB; version 6d2051efb0f838b5e2395c794434a480; retrieved 2026-10-16; built 2026-10-16.This citation identifies the ImmigrationDB compilation/page. Underlying source publishers and datasets retain their own terms; inspect the Sources section and cite those records separately. View the underlying source records.
Sources
- 2025 H2 Local Area Labour Force Survey — municipal key employment indicators 2025 H2 Local Area Labour Force Survey · korea.kr · checked 2026-07-22
- Air Pollution Level Confirmation Data — 2024 PM2.5 station observations Air Pollution Level Confirmation Data · data.go.kr · checked 2026-07-26
- census.go.kr recorded crime data census.go.kr · checked 2026-08-28
- census.go.kr recorded crime data census.go.kr · checked 2026-08-28
- data.go.kr recorded crime data data.go.kr · checked 2026-08-28
- data.go.kr recorded crime data data.go.kr · checked 2026-08-28
- DT_1JU1501 2024 housing units by municipality kosis.kr · checked 2026-07-22
- DT_1JU1512 2024 vacant housing units by municipality kosis.kr · checked 2026-07-22
- english.seoul.go.kr place coordinates english.seoul.go.kr · checked 2026-08-28
- HIRA 전국 병의원 및 약국 현황 2026.6 — 시설정보 HIRA 전국 병의원 및 약국 현황 2026.6 · opendata.hira.or.kr · checked 2026-09-15
Show 18 more sources
- Korea Immigration Service registered foreigners by si/gun/gu and nationality, 2025-12-31 immigration.go.kr · checked 2026-07-22
- KOSIS e-RegionIndex doctors per 1000 kosis.kr · checked 2026-07-21
- KOSIS e-RegionIndex hospital beds per 100k kosis.kr · checked 2026-07-21
- KR-Police-regional-crime-2024 data.go.kr · checked 2026-09-15
- KT 100 Mbps internet product.kt.com · checked 2026-09-15
- KT mobile data plan product.kt.com · checked 2026-09-15
- MOIS resident registration population by si/gun/gu, June 2026 jumin.mois.go.kr · checked 2026-07-21
- MOIS resident-registration population, sex and household counts by administrative area, June 2026 jumin.mois.go.kr · checked 2026-07-22
- NASA POWER 2024 daily point climate observation for South Korea municipalities power.larc.nasa.gov · checked 2026-07-22
- Official KOSIS visual statistics, Korea City Statistics, regional area; joined to the archived MOIS/KOSIS si-gun-gu code and name. kosis.kr · checked 2026-07-15
- Registered foreigners by local government, March 2026 immigration.go.kr · checked 2026-07-21
- Registered motor vehicles by si, gun and gu stat.molit.go.kr · checked 2026-07-21
- Schoolinfo official open-data callback response schoolinfo.go.kr · checked 2026-07-21
- Statistics Korea / KOSIS citizenship distribution kosis.kr · checked 2026-08-28
- WMO Climatological Normals 1991-2020 — station Seoul_47108.csv WMO Climatological Normals 1991-2020 · ncei.noaa.gov · checked 2026-07-31
- Work24 — 고용복지+센터 institution finder Work24 · work24.go.kr · checked 2026-09-15
- 국토교통부 실거래가 공개시스템 조건별 자료제공 — 아파트 전월세 (전세 rows: 보증금(만원)) 국토교통부 실거래가 공개시스템 조건별 자료제공 · rt.molit.go.kr · checked 2026-09-18
- 전국주택가격동향조사 — 지역별 전월세 전환율_아파트 (A_2024_00156, statId S234820263) 전국주택가격동향조사 · reb.or.kr · checked 2026-09-19
Spotted a number that looks wrong? Every value here carries its source and date — tell us what you found and we will re-check it against the source.