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Living in Vallelaghi

In Vallelaghi, rent averages €4.25 per m² a month (2025) and unemployment is 3.6% (2023).

For Vallelaghi, the foreign population was 368 at the start of 2026. The city covers 72.45 km², with a population density of 72.2 people per km² at the start of 2026. The city had 3,014 dwellings in 2023. The city had 4 schools in August 2025.

Last checked 2026-09-2333 sources

Population5,231people1 Jan 2025Official source · ISTAT municipality population and citizenship tables 2025
Median gross salary (region)1,941EUR/month31 Dec 2024Official source · servizi2.inps.it
Average net rent4.25EUR/m²/month31 Dec 2025Official source · Collected source
Unemployment rate3.63%country median 6.0% — 40% belowOfficial source · Istituto Nazionale di Statistica (ISTAT)
Recorded crime2,953incidents per 100,00031 Dec 2024District figureOfficial source · Tasso di delittuosità - prov
PM2.5, annual mean13µg/m³31 Dec 2024Nearest stationOfficial source · EEA air quality statistics — IT PM2.5 annual mean 2024 (station TRENTO PSC)

Lower unemployment than 97% of Italian cities that publish it, less recorded crime than any other Italian city that publishes it and cleaner air than 61% of Italian cities that publish it.

Which Italy-wide rules apply when you move to Vallelaghi?

National rules stay on the country page instead of being relabelled as city data.

Housing and cost

How much does it cost to rent in Vallelaghi?

Average net cold rent is 4.25 EUR/m² per month (2025-S2), excluding heating and operating charges.

Published average over existing tenancies; a specific flat can sit either side of it. Asking-rent series, where present, are separate rows in the table.

  • Average net rent (nettokalt): 4.25 EUR/m²/month · Collected source1
What recurs every month2 published recurring costs, € per month
Vallelaghi recurring monthly costs, € per month

€ / month

Internet, 60 Mbps€30
Mobile plan, 10 GB€12
Net rent across major citiesVallelaghi highlighted among comparable cities
Net rent across major cities with Vallelaghi highlighted

net rent, € / m² / month

Milan€30.00
Rome€17.15
Naples€9.10
MetricValuePeriodSource
Internet, 60 Mbps unlimited29.9 EUR/month30 Sept 2026iliadbox fixed fibre5Official · national market
Mobile plan, 10 GB11.99 EUR/month30 Sept 2026iliad GIGA mobile tariff4Official · national market
Dwellings3,014 dwellings31 Dec 2023ISTAT permanent population and housing census by census section and municipality12Official
Main residence dwellings2,225 dwellings31 Dec 2021Istat (Italian National Institute of Statistics)7Official
Average net rent (nettokalt)4.25 EUR/m²/month31 Dec 2025Collected source1Official · municipality zone median

Is Vallelaghi a good place to live?

There is no universal answer. The profile scores below show who the available published evidence may suit; they are a decision aid, not a personal recommendation.

Try your profile
Remote worker52%strong on work, weak on air quality · range 42–62%
Skilled employee53%strong on work, weak on safety · range 44–62%
Student38%strong on housing, weak on work · range 28–48%
Family45%strong on family, weak on cost · range 34–56%
Retirement58%strong on safety, weak on admin · range 46–70%

Worked out from these numbers

What does a 60 m² flat cost?

About 255 EUR a month in cold rent at the published average of 4.25 EUR/m² per month, before heating and operating charges.

Heating, water and operating charges come on top, and a specific flat can sit either side of an average.

Source period: 2025-S2

Work and income

What is the unemployment rate in Vallelaghi?

The unemployment rate is about 3.6 % (2023).

  • Unemployment rate: 3.63 % · Istituto Nazionale di Statistica (ISTAT)14
Unemployment across cities in ItalyUnemployment in Vallelaghi is 3.6%. Of 2,393 cities with data, 1,023 have unemployment of 4 to under 6%.

Unemployment rate (%)

MetricValuePeriodSource
People in employment2,472 people31 Dec 2021Istat (Italian National Institute of Statistics)8Official
Median gross salary (regional)1,941 EUR/month31 Dec 2024servizi2.inps.it21Official
Unemployment rate3.63 %country median 6.0%31 Dec 2023Istituto Nazionale di Statistica (ISTAT)14Official

What does a salary buy in Vallelaghi?

Take-home pay after tax, minus rent and the everyday bills this city publishes. Each line names its source.

regional median gross pay: €1,941 (servizi2.inps.it, 2024-12-31).
Left over each month€1,296of €1,593 take-home
  • Rent
  • Internet
  • Mobile
  • Left over
Line-by-line breakdown and sources
Each month€
Take-home payOECD Taxing Wages 2025, single, no children. Includes central and local income tax and employee social contributions.€1,593
Rent, 60 m²€4.25/m² · official · Collected source · 2025-12-31− €255
Internet€30 · official · iliadbox fixed fibre · 2026-09-30− €30
Mobile plan€12 · official · iliad GIGA mobile tariff · 2026-09-30− €12
Other everyday billsnot published for this city: public transport pass, utilities—
Left overbefore the bills this city does not publish€1,296
Take-home pay for other salaries and households Compare with another city Check a job offer in Vallelaghi Salary needed to live in Vallelaghi

Public employment service

No exact public employment office is currently linked to Vallelaghi. The verified national service may still offer online registration, job search or an official office finder.

Country-level information

Centri per l'impiego — Public employment service

Italian public employment services / regional employment centres

Job SearchTraining

Country-level service information is not treated as proof of a physical office in Vallelaghi. Sources checked through 10 Aug 2026.

Family and education

MetricValuePeriodSource
Schools4 schools31 Aug 2025MIM Open Data - Anagrafe scuole statali e paritarie17Official

School for children who move here. School is compulsory from age 6 to 16, and public school is free. Newly arrived pupils get support in the school language: Italian L2 laboratories and support for foreign pupils (DPR 394/1999 art 45 route). How to enrol a child (istruzione.it).

A country-wide rule for Italy; Vallelaghi's school authority applies it locally.

Sources: eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu · 2026.

Safety

How safe is Vallelaghi?

Police recorded about 2,953 incidents per 100,000 (2024). This counts all offences, so it is not comparable with a violent-crime-only rate from another source. Source: Tasso di delittuosità - prov22

Recorded crime across major citiesVallelaghi highlighted among comparable cities
Recorded crime across major cities with Vallelaghi highlighted

recorded incidents per 100k residents

Florence11,422
Milan10,343
Bologna9,973
Turin9,170
Venice9,092
Catania7,485
Rome7,475
Verona6,667
Naples6,521
Genoa5,692
Palermo5,384
Bari4,616
MetricValuePeriodSource
Recorded incidents per 100,000 residents2,953 incidents per 100,00031 Dec 2024Tasso di delittuosità - prov22Official · county

Language courses and integration

No exact city-level course record is currently published for Vallelaghi. These verified national programmes may still apply; use the official programme page to check local availability.

Country-level information

CPIA public Italian-language and orientation courses for foreign adults — State Language Course

Italian public adult-education system — Centri Provinciali per l'Istruzione degli Adulti

For foreign adults, people seeking Italian language and culture courses.

ItalianCEFR A2In PersonCost varies

L.O.R.R. — Language, Orientation, Recognition and Networks with CPIA — Job-related language course

Italian Ministry of Labour and Social Policies / FAMI 2021-2027 programme

For third-country nationals, vulnerable migrants, unaccompanied minors.

ItalianIn Person, Online
National programme information is not treated as proof of a course location in Vallelaghi.

Find courses near Vallelaghi

Climate and air quality

Annual NO₂ was 5 µg/m³ in 2022. Annual PM10 was 11 µg/m³ in 2022.

Is the air quality good in Vallelaghi?

The annual PM2.5 mean is 13 µg/m³ (2024) — above the WHO 2021 guideline of 5 µg/m³ but within the EU limit of 25 µg/m³. Source: EEA air quality statistics — IT PM2.5 annual mean 2024 (station TRENTO PSC)2

Annual mean at the measuring site(s) serving the city; current-day readings differ.

Temperature through the yearAverage daytime high and night-time low, °C
Rainfall through the yearAverage monthly precipitation, mm
Sunshine through the yearAverage monthly sunshine, hours
Air quality vs health guidelinesAnnual means against WHO 2021 guidelines and EU legal limits

City values from the published air-quality observations. WHO 2021 guidelines and EU limit values are published constants.

PM2.5 across cities in ItalyAnnual PM2.5 in Vallelaghi is 13.0 µg/m³. Of 1,693 cities with data, 204 have annual PM2.5 of 12 to under 13 µg/m³.

Annual PM2.5 (µg/m³)

MetricValuePeriodSource
NO₂ — annual mean5 µg/m³country median 15.02022Validated annual station statistic media_yy for the requested pollutant23Official
PM10 — annual mean11 µg/m³country median 22.02022Validated annual station statistic media_yy for the requested pollutant23Official
PM2.5 — annual mean13 µg/m³31 Dec 2024EEA air quality statistics — IT PM2.5 annual mean 2024 (station TRENTO PSC)2Official · nearest-station reading
Average daytime high by monthJan -2.15 · Feb -2.5 · Mar 0.03 · Apr 2.94 · May 8.07 · Jun 12.84 · Jul 14.88 · Aug 14.54 · Sep 9.93 · Oct 5.8 · Nov 1.2 · Dec -1.25 °C1991–2020WMO Climatological Normals 1991-2020 — station Paganella_16022.csv24Official · nearest-station reading
Average night-time low by monthJan -6.46 · Feb -6.97 · Mar -4.92 · Apr -2.12 · May 1.93 · Jun 5.88 · Jul 7.98 · Aug 8.21 · Sep 4.48 · Oct 1.27 · Nov -2.81 · Dec -5.72 °C1991–2020WMO Climatological Normals 1991-2020 — station Paganella_16022.csv24Official · nearest-station reading
Average temperature by monthJan -4.32 · Feb -4.69 · Mar -2.47 · Apr 0.32 · May 4.8 · Jun 9.08 · Jul 11.16 · Aug 11.08 · Sep 6.94 · Oct 3.41 · Nov -0.8 · Dec -3.54 °C1991–2020WMO Climatological Normals 1991-2020 — station Paganella_16022.csv24Official · nearest-station reading
Average precipitation by monthJan 17.31 · Feb 53.43 · Mar 30.02 · Apr 41.82 · May 83.41 · Jun 93.81 · Jul 101 · Aug 95.44 · Sep 90.38 · Oct 124.5 · Nov 66.18 · Dec 26.52 mm1991–2020WMO Climatological Normals 1991-2020 — station Paganella_16022.csv24Official · nearest-station reading
Average sunshine by monthJan 190.3 · Feb 202.2 · Mar 228.8 · Apr 214.8 · May 232.5 · Jun 223.2 · Jul 247.4 · Aug 238.1 · Sep 209.1 · Oct 210.8 · Nov 178.2 · Dec 173 hours1991–2020WMO Climatological Normals 1991-2020 — station Paganella_16022.csv24Official · nearest-station reading

Population and city profile

How many people live in Vallelaghi?

The published population was 5,231 people in 2025. Source: ISTAT municipality population and citizenship tables 202511

Who lives hereResidents by nationality, % of population

Calculated from the population and foreign-resident facts on this page.

MetricValuePeriodSource
Cars per 1,000 residents677 cars/1000 residents31 Dec 2023IstatData / ACI Pubblico registro automobilistico13Official
City area72.45 km²2026Official SITUAS report 74 (Comuni - Dimensione): exact municipality surface in km2, with annual area vintage.19Official
Foreign residents368 people1 Jan 2026Official ISTAT STRASA estimate of resident foreign population by municipality at 1 January 2026; Età=999 is the total.18Official
Population density72.15 people/km²1 Jan 2026Official SITUAS report 74 (Comuni - Dimensione): exact municipality surface in km2, with annual area vintage.20Official
Female residents2,581 people31 Dec 2024Istat (Italian National Institute of Statistics)6Official
Male residents2,650 people31 Dec 2024Istat (Italian National Institute of Statistics)6Official
Population5,231 people1 Jan 2025ISTAT municipality population and citizenship tables 202511Official
Population over time8 published observations, 2018–2025

Population rose 2.1% between 2018 and 2025, from 5,122 to 5,231.

International community in Vallelaghi

Named groups from exact city-grain official distributions. Citizenship, birthplace, language and ancestry answer different questions and stay separate.

Country of birth

Resident population in Italy at 1 January 2025; source-native country dimension; total sex · 2025-01-01

Published groupPeopleShare
Derived source total (sum of all published country rows)5,231100.0%
Italia4,67889.4%
Moldova991.9%
Romania661.3%
Albania480.9%
Marocco340.6%
Macedonia del Nord310.6%
Pakistan270.5%
Tunisia150.3%
Svizzera140.3%
Show 56 more groups
Published groupPeopleShare
Brasile140.3%
Germania130.2%
Ucraina130.2%
India130.2%
Francia100.2%
Belgio90.2%
Federazione russa90.2%
Colombia90.2%
Iraq80.2%
Argentina80.2%
Cile70.1%
Spagna60.1%
Nigeria60.1%
Perù60.1%
Regno Unito50.1%
Polonia50.1%
Thailandia50.1%
Senegal50.1%
Cuba50.1%
Austria40.1%
Ecuador40.1%
Bulgaria30.1%
Grecia30.1%
Portogallo30.1%
Ungheria30.1%
Croazia30.1%
Paesi Bassi20.0%
Vietnam20.0%
Algeria20.0%
Gambia20.0%
Repubblica Dominicana20.0%
Giamaica20.0%
Stati Uniti d'America20.0%
Bolivia20.0%
Paraguay20.0%
Australia20.0%
Svezia10.0%
Bosnia-Erzegovina10.0%
Bielorussia10.0%
Repubblica ceca10.0%
Serbia10.0%
Kosovo10.0%
Bangladesh10.0%
Sri Lanka10.0%
Nepal10.0%
Turchia10.0%
Georgia10.0%
Camerun10.0%
Egitto10.0%
Ghana10.0%
Guinea-Bissau10.0%
Libia10.0%
Sierra Leone10.0%
Togo10.0%
Uruguay10.0%
Venezuela10.0%

Largest published groups; zero-count groups are omitted. Dimensions are source-native and are never merged. Official source16

Citizenship

Resident population in Italy at 1 January 2025; source-native country dimension; total sex · 2025-01-01

Published groupPeopleShare
Derived source total (sum of all published country rows)5,231100.0%
Italia4,86693.0%
Romania1162.2%
Albania350.7%
Marocco340.6%
Moldova300.6%
Pakistan220.4%
Tunisia160.3%
Ucraina100.2%
Iraq80.2%
Show 40 more groups
Published groupPeopleShare
Macedonia del Nord70.1%
Nigeria70.1%
Germania60.1%
Portogallo60.1%
India60.1%
Bulgaria50.1%
Senegal40.1%
Cuba40.1%
Colombia40.1%
Regno Unito30.1%
Spagna30.1%
Croazia30.1%
Gambia30.1%
Francia20.0%
Ungheria20.0%
Federazione russa20.0%
Thailandia20.0%
Camerun20.0%
Brasile20.0%
Grecia10.0%
Paesi Bassi10.0%
Polonia10.0%
Svizzera10.0%
Bielorussia10.0%
Repubblica ceca10.0%
Serbia10.0%
Bangladesh10.0%
Sri Lanka10.0%
Georgia10.0%
Algeria10.0%
Ghana10.0%
Guinea-Bissau10.0%
Togo10.0%
Giamaica10.0%
Stati Uniti d'America10.0%
Bolivia10.0%
Ecuador10.0%
Paraguay10.0%
Perù10.0%
Venezuela10.0%

Largest published groups; zero-count groups are omitted. Dimensions are source-native and are never merged. Official source15

Additional context

MetricValuePeriodSource
Residents born abroad10.39 %31 Dec 2023ISTAT permanent population and housing census by census section and municipality12Official
Non-citizens, share of residents6.98 %31 Dec 2024Istat (Italian National Institute of Statistics)9Official
Households2,319 households31 Dec 2024Istat (Italian National Institute of Statistics)10Official

Alternatives for people set on Vallelaghi

Three places for the three reasons people leave a city on the shortlist: stay in the region, stay in the country, or keep the budget and change the country. A percentage appears only where both cities publish that metric from the same source, period and grain. Distances are straight lines — travel times are not collected yet.

Altopiano della Vigolana as a Vallelaghi alternative in the same region

18 km away, better on 1 of 5 metrics measured the same way, worse on 0.

  • Unemployment: 3.1% Altopiano della Vigolana vs 3.6% Vallelaghi−15%
  • Rent: €4.38/m² Altopiano della Vigolana vs €4.25/m² Vallelaghisame level
  • Residents: 5,156 Altopiano della Vigolana vs 5,231 Vallelaghi−1%
  • Median gross pay, region: €1,941 Altopiano della Vigolana vs €1,941 Vallelaghisame level
  • Recorded crime, per 100k: 2,953 Altopiano della Vigolana vs 2,953 Vallelaghisame level

Cities near Vallelaghi

Published cities within 25 km, nearest first. Distances are straight-line.

Alternative cities in Italy

Other cities in Italy to compare with Vallelaghi, nearest in population first.

All Italy cities

How does Vallelaghi compare?

Pick a city. The answer appears here and the address bar keeps it, so the comparison can be shared; the page stays Vallelaghi's.

Yes — migrants can receive medical care in Vallelaghi when the national insurance or residence conditions are met.

Healthcare access follows the country-wide insurance rules; local capacity facts remain city data and are not used as proof of eligibility.

Open the official coverage guide
Country rule verified 2026-08-03.

Is Vallelaghi part of Trento?

Vallelaghi is in the published commuting zone of Trento; this does not mean it is administratively part of the hub. Trento city profile

Relationship type: Commuting Zone Of. Source3

Common questions

Answered from the published values on this page, each with its source and date.

How many people live in Vallelaghi?

The published population was 5,231 people in 2025. Source: ISTAT municipality population and citizenship tables 2025.

How much does it cost to rent in Vallelaghi?

Average net cold rent is 4.25 EUR/m² per month (2025-S2), excluding heating and operating charges. For a 70 m² flat that is about 298 EUR a month before utilities. Source: Collected source.

Is the air quality good in Vallelaghi?

The annual PM2.5 mean is 13 µg/m³ (2024) — above the WHO 2021 guideline of 5 µg/m³ but within the EU limit of 25 µg/m³. Source: EEA air quality statistics — IT PM2.5 annual mean 2024 (station TRENTO PSC).

How safe is Vallelaghi?

Police recorded about 2,953 incidents per 100,000 (2024). This counts all offences, so it is not comparable with a violent-crime-only rate from another source. Source: Tasso di delittuosità - prov.

What is the unemployment rate in Vallelaghi?

The unemployment rate is about 3.6 % (2023). Source: Istituto Nazionale di Statistica (ISTAT).

What is the typical salary around Vallelaghi?

The median gross salary is 1,941 EUR/month. Source: servizi2.inps.it.

Is Vallelaghi a good place to live?

Vallelaghi may suit different people for different reasons. The page's profile scores compare published cost, work, housing, safety, healthcare and other available factors; they are a decision aid, not a universal recommendation.

Is Vallelaghi part of Trento?

Vallelaghi is in the published commuting zone of Trento; this does not mean it is administratively part of the hub.

Which cities are near Vallelaghi?

Trento, Dro, Lavis, Mezzolombardo, Altopiano della Vigolana are near Vallelaghi. Typed relationship labels are shown where published; other rows use straight-line distance from admitted coordinates.

How many people born in Derived source total (sum of all published country rows) live in Vallelaghi?

The official country of birth distribution records 5,231 people (100.0%) in the source-defined population for 2025-01-01. This is a country of birth measure, not a general estimate of ethnicity or migration status.

Cite this page

Open a format to select or copy this ImmigrationDB compilation citation. The native disclosure and text fallback work without JavaScript.

APA citation
ImmigrationDB. (2026, October 16). Vallelaghi, Italy: population, rent, salary, cost of living [ImmigrationDB compilation; version f7c03465774515ceafaa196a82c3551a]. ImmigrationDB. https://immigrationdb.com/cities/it/vallelaghi/ Retrieved 2026-10-16. Compilation license: CC BY 4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
BibTeX citation
@misc{immigrationdb_immigrationdb_vallelaghi-italy-population-rent-salary-cost-of-living_efaf52e2331e,
  author = {ImmigrationDB},
  title = {Vallelaghi, Italy: population, rent, salary, cost of living},
  publisher = {ImmigrationDB},
  year = {2026},
  date = {2026-10-16},
  version = {f7c03465774515ceafaa196a82c3551a},
  url = {https://immigrationdb.com/cities/it/vallelaghi/},
  note = {Retrieved 2026-10-16. ImmigrationDB compilation. Compilation license: CC BY 4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/},
}
Markdown citation
[Vallelaghi, Italy: population, rent, salary, cost of living](https://immigrationdb.com/cities/it/vallelaghi/) — ImmigrationDB; ImmigrationDB; version f7c03465774515ceafaa196a82c3551a; retrieved 2026-10-16; built 2026-10-16.

This citation identifies the ImmigrationDB compilation/page. Underlying source publishers and datasets retain their own terms; inspect the Sources section and cite those records separately. View the underlying source records.

Sources

JSON Markdown
  1. Collected source www1.agenziaentrate.gov.it · checked 2026-08-05
  2. EEA air quality statistics — IT PM2.5 annual mean 2024 (station TRENTO PSC) EEA air quality statistics · air.discomap.eea.europa.eu · checked 2026-07-31
  3. GISCO Urban Audit 2021 — Functional Urban Areas (URAU_RG_100K_2021_4326_FUA) GISCO Urban Audit 2021 · gisco-services.ec.europa.eu · checked 2026-09-19
  4. iliad GIGA mobile tariff iliad.it · checked 2026-09-15
  5. iliadbox fixed fibre iliad.it · checked 2026-09-15
  6. Istat (Italian National Institute of Statistics) istat.it · checked 2026-08-07
  7. Istat (Italian National Institute of Statistics) esploradati.istat.it · checked 2026-08-07
  8. Istat (Italian National Institute of Statistics) esploradati.istat.it · checked 2026-08-07
  9. Istat (Italian National Institute of Statistics) istat.it · checked 2026-08-07
  10. Istat (Italian National Institute of Statistics) esploradati.istat.it · checked 2026-08-07
Show 23 more sources
  1. ISTAT municipality population and citizenship tables 2025 demo.istat.it · checked 2026-07-26
  2. ISTAT permanent population and housing census by census section and municipality istat.it · checked 2026-07-16
  3. IstatData / ACI Pubblico registro automobilistico istat.it · checked 2026-08-08
  4. Istituto Nazionale di Statistica (ISTAT) istat.it · checked 2026-08-04
  5. Istituto Nazionale di Statistica (Istat), Italy citizenship distribution demo.istat.it · checked 2026-08-28
  6. Istituto Nazionale di Statistica (Istat), Italy country of birth distribution demo.istat.it · checked 2026-08-28
  7. MIM Open Data - Anagrafe scuole statali e paritarie dati.istruzione.it · checked 2026-07-16
  8. Official ISTAT STRASA estimate of resident foreign population by municipality at 1 January 2026; Età=999 is the total. demo.istat.it · checked 2026-07-15
  9. Official SITUAS report 74 (Comuni - Dimensione): exact municipality surface in km2, with annual area vintage. situas-servizi.istat.it · checked 2026-07-15
  10. Official SITUAS report 74 (Comuni - Dimensione): exact municipality surface in km2, with annual area vintage. demo.istat.it · checked 2026-07-15
  11. servizi2.inps.it servizi2.inps.it · checked 2026-08-27
  12. Tasso di delittuosità - prov esploradati.istat.it · checked 2026-09-23
  13. Validated annual station statistic media_yy for the requested pollutant isprambiente.gov.it · checked 2026-07-15
  14. WMO Climatological Normals 1991-2020 — station Paganella_16022.csv WMO Climatological Normals 1991-2020 · ncei.noaa.gov · checked 2026-07-31
  15. Coordinate identity evidence wikidata.org · checked 2026-09-06
  16. Coordinate identity evidence wikidata.org · checked 2026-09-06
  17. Coordinate identity evidence wikidata.org · checked 2026-09-06
  18. Coordinate identity evidence wikidata.org · checked 2026-09-06
  19. Coordinate identity evidence wikidata.org · checked 2026-09-06
  20. Coordinate identity evidence wikidata.org · checked 2026-09-06
  21. Coordinate identity evidence wikidata.org · checked 2026-09-06
  22. Coordinate identity evidence wikidata.org · checked 2026-09-06
  23. Coordinate identity evidence wikidata.org · checked 2026-09-06

Spotted a number that looks wrong? Every value here carries its source and date — tell us what you found and we will re-check it against the source.